2009年8月31日 星期一
2009年8月25日 星期二
徐堉峰老師赴日領獎小記(刊載於台灣昆蟲通訊2009(4))
在去年十月的一個忙碌的午後，當時我正為了處理一些煩瑣的雜務而感到疲累，隨手開了電子郵件瞧一下有沒有朋友傳趣聞、笑話讓我醒醒腦。突然一封來自日本的郵件引起我的注意。發信人是刻正於東京大學做研究的矢後勝也博士，其人的專長是在鱗翅目的系統分類及親緣地理，他幾年前才從九州大學獲得博士學位，數年間便已經完成、發表好些高水準研究，讓我印象很深刻。我過去與矢後博士曾有數面之緣，在赴日調查臺灣蝶類模式標本時與會面過他兩次，另外他也曾與其他日本研究者一同訪臺研究蠶蛾時到過我的研究室，不過除此之外，在外國朋友當中，和他的往來較少。漫不經心地將郵件打開後，郵件內容卻教我吃了一驚。郵件大意是日本蝶類學會學術委員會提名為該學會研究獎「林賞」(Hayashi Award) 的得獎候選人，委員會將在十月底討論決定獲獎人，問我是否接受提名.........[下載全文][書介]綠島的蛾 Moths of Green Island
[書名] 綠島的蛾 Moths of Green Island[作者] 傅建明 徐渙之 Chien-Ming Fu & Huan-Chih Hsu
[出版年代] 2009年(7月)
[出版單位] 台中縣鄉土自然研究學會 Taichung Nature Research Society
[內容] 本書作者利用2007-2008年的時段於綠島進行全面性的採集, 共記錄17科191種蛾類, 其中包括20個台灣新記錄種與數個新記錄的未確認種, 羅列如下:
蠹蛾科 Cossidae
Phragmataecia sp.
網蛾科 Thyrididae
Canaea ryukyuensis Inoue, 1965
Banisia owadai Inoue, 1976
Calindoea polygraphis (Walker, [1866])
草螟科 Crambidae
Parotis laceritalis (Kendrick, 1907)
尺蛾科 Geometridae
Ozola defectana Inoue, 1971 (除首次記錄文獻外的新增證據標本記錄)
Gonodontis pallida (Butler, 1880) (台灣產Gonodontis屬鑑定的釋疑)
Xerodes sordidata (Inoue, 1987) (已被Sato et al. (2011)的文章確認為X. obscura的誤訂)
Cusiala boarmioides (Moore, [1887]) (鑑定上的釋疑)
Cleora fraterna (Moore, 1888) (鑑定上的釋疑)
Cleora injectaria (Walker, 1860)
Pingasa crenaria (Guenee, [1858])
Pasiphila sp.
Symmimetis sp.
天蛾科 Sphingidae
Gnathothlibus erotus (Cramer, 1777)
Macroglossum ungues cheni Yen, Kitching & Tzen, 2003 (新分布記錄)
Syntomoides imaon (Cramer, 1780) (註一)
瘤蛾科 Nolidae
Miaromima kobesi (Sugi, 1991)
Gadirtha pulchra Butler, 1886
Plotheia exacta (Semper, 1900)
夜蛾科 Noctuidae (廣義)
Rivula curvifera Walker, 1862
Zanclognatha yaeyamalis Owada, 1977
Lophoptera vittigera Walker, 1865
Bastilla vitiensis Butler, 1886
Papuacola costalis (Moore, 1883)
Ecpatia longinquuva (Swinhoe, 1890)
Euplocia membliaria (Cramer, 1780)
Feliniopsis indistans (Guenee, 1852) (鑑定的釋疑)
Tiracola aureata Holloway, 1989 (與Tiracola plagiata在分布上的確認)
註一: 此種在台灣的記錄事實上已被東京科學博物館之大和田守博士所報導(Owada, M., 2004. On the syntomine moth Syntomoides imaon (Lepidoptera, Arctiidae) new to the Ryukyus and Japan. Tinea 18: 103-107. )
2009年8月24日 星期一
粒線體與微衛星體DNA標記顯示具高入侵性的七葉樹潛蛾起源自巴爾幹半島
圖片來源：dendro.mojzisek.cz文獻來源: Valade R, Kenis M, Hernandez-Lopez A, Augustin S, Mari Mena N, Magnoux E, Rougerie R, Lakatos F, Roques A, Lopez-Vaamonde C. 2009. Mitochondrial and microsatellite DNA markers reveal a Balkan origin for the highly invasive horse-chestnut leaf miner Cameraria ohridella (Lepidoptera, Gracillariidae). Molecular Ecology 18(16): 3458 - 3470. [Abstract]
生物入侵通常始於少量的創始者個體。創始者很可能只表現出來源族群一小部分的遺傳多樣性。本研究以遺傳方式追蹤七葉樹潛蛾（Cameraria ohridella，一種起源地未明的入侵性小鱗翅目昆蟲）的地理起源。自從25年前在馬其頓的發現後，這種昆蟲經歷了爆炸性的向西擴張，日益拓殖到整個中歐與西歐。作者使用COI序列（DNA條碼片段）與一組六個多型性的微衛星體去評估七葉樹潛蛾族群的遺傳變異，並測試七葉樹潛蛾起源自南巴爾幹半島（阿爾巴尼亞、馬其頓和希臘）的假說。來自88的地點共486個樣本的mtDNA讓我們鑑定出了25個地理結構上的單體型。此外，來自歐洲與南巴爾幹半島的 16個族群、共480個個體在基因上被找出6個多型性的微衛星體基因座。單體型具有高多樣性而核甘酸多樣性測量值低、包括顯著負相關的 Tajima’s D指數，表示七葉樹潛蛾在擴散橫越歐洲時曾經歷快速的族群擴張。粒線體與微衛星體DNA均顯示來自歐洲人為棲地（如公園、花園中的植樹或道路兩邊的空地）的七葉樹潛蛾與來自南巴爾幹半島自然棲地的樣本相較，有遺傳多樣性減低的現象。作者根據以上發現推測，歐洲的七葉樹潛蛾族群的確源自於南巴爾幹半島。
Abstract
Biological invasions usually start with a small number of founder individuals. These founders are likely to represent a small fraction of the total genetic diversity found in the source population. Our study to trace genetically the geographical origin of the horse-chestnut leafminer, Cameraria ohridella, an invasive microlepidopteran whose area of origin is still unkown. Since its discovery in Macedonia 25 years ago, this insect has experienced an explosive westward range expansion, progressively colonizing all of Central and Western Europe. We used cytochrome oxidase I sequences (DNA barcode fragment) and a set of six polymorphic microsatellites to assess the genetic variability of C. ohridella populations, and to test the hypothesis that C. ohridella derives from the southern Balkans (Albania, Macedonia and Greece). Analysis of mtDNA of 486 individuals from 88 localities allowed us to identify 25 geographically structured haplotypes. In addition, 480 individuals from 16 populations from Europe and the sout ern Balkans were genotyped for 6 polymorphic microsatellite loci. High haplotype diversity and low measures of nucleotide diversities a significantly negative Tajima’s D indicate that C. ohridella has experienced rapid population expansion during its dispersal across Europe. Both mtDNA and microsatellites show a reduction in genetic diversity of C. ohridella populations sampled from artificial habitats (e.g. planted trees in public parks, gardens, along roads in urban or sub-urban areas) across Europe compared with C. ohridella sampled in natural stands of horse-chestnuts in the southern Balkans. These findings suggest that European populations of C. ohridella may indeed derive from the southern Balkans.
Keywords: Aesculus hippocastanum, Balkans, Cameraria ohridella, genetic bottleneck, invasion, phylogeography
2009年8月22日 星期六
北美高山絹蝶在第四紀的氣候循環中的生物地理學研究
文獻來源：Schoville SD & Roderick GK. 2009. Alpine biogeography of Parnassian butterflies during Quaternary climate cycles in North America. Molecular Ecology. 18(1): 3471-3485. [Abstract]更新世的冰河消長對於北美洲高山的地景，以及現居高山生態系的生物有深遠的影響。雖然物種豐度的模式偏離了島嶼生物地理學的預測，但在生物地理學上北美高山仍常被視為空中島嶼。原因之一即為受第四紀末期的地景變遷影響，造成了高山生物非平衡的群聚動態以及地理分布的變動，此可從遺傳資料中獲得證據。此研究利用粒線體DNA的COI片段以及核DNA的wingless與EF1a片段做分析、推測福布絹蝶（Parnassius phoebus）種複合群的演化歷史。作者對Parnassius smintheus與Parnassius behrii生物地理分布的變動歷史進行了多項測試，結果支持高山島嶼避難所模式，意即高山蝶類族群於冰河期縮減，並隨著間冰期的來到而擴張。雖然蝴蝶有能力於冰河期時在高山之間進行長距離的播遷，但事實上基因交流卻很少。此研究發現加州與科羅拉多州的高山棲地曾於間冰期形成連結，接著蝴蝶族群就於約兩萬年前快速擴張，進入上次冰河期後又縮減成小族群。研究譜系分枝的結果顯示P. smintheus與P. behrii的形態差異源自於更新世末期（約四萬八千年前），由於不順暢的基因交流造成分化所形成。此研究結果說明了空間的異質性與非平衡的族群動態影響了高山的生物多樣性。
Abstract
Growth of alpine glaciers during the Pleistocene had profound effects on montane landscapes in North America and the organisms now inhabiting alpine ecosystems. Biogeography of this region has often been viewed as a system of sky islands despite the fact that species richness patterns deviate from a strict island biogeographic model. One explanation is that alpine species are not in equilibrium because of late Quaternary geographic range shifts. Genetic data can provide evidence of nonequilibrium dynamics and the distributional shifts that occur during glaciation events in alpine landscapes. Using mitochondrial and nuclear sequence data, we examine the evolutionary history of butterflies in the Parnassius phoebus complex. We test explicit, alternative models of the biogeographic history of Parnassius smintheus and Parnassius behrii, including an equilibrium island model, ancestral radiation and fragmentation, an expanding alpine archipelago and an alpine archipelago refuge model. Our results support the alpine archipelago refuge model, in which alpine butterflies undergo population contraction during glacial climates followed by population expansion during interglacial phases. While butterflies can disperse between distant mountain ranges during glacial periods, gene flow is rare. We find evidence of recent connectivity between California and Colorado, population expansion events following deglaciation ∼20 000 years B.P., and small population sizes during the last glacial period. An analysis of lineage splitting suggests that morphological differences in P. smintheus and P. behrii are the result of late Pleistocene divergence (∼48 000 years B.P.) with limited gene flow. Our results demonstrate that spatially complex and nonequilibrium population dynamics influence alpine diversity patterns.
2009年8月21日 星期五
共域分布但利用不同寄主植物的蝶類隱藏種群為異域起源
文獻來源: McBride CS, Velzen RV & Larsen TB. 2009. Allopatric origin of cryptic butterfly species that were discovered feeding on distinct host plants in sympatry. Molecular Ecology 18(17): 3639-3651. [Abstract]近年熱帶昆蟲的研究持續發現隱藏種－意指由於形態近似，過去被歸類為同一種，但其實具生殖隔離的不同物種。然而此類研究大多局限於單一地點，因此對於這些隱藏種的地理分布與種內變異所知極為有限，這也造成在推測何種力量促成此多樣性時的困難。例如在許多廣食性的植食或寄生昆蟲被發現實為多種專食性物種的研究中，寄主轉移被認為與種化有關，但是寄主轉移發生於何時、何地？是否受到地理隔離的幫助？此研究使用最近於西非喀麥隆中部被發現，利用不同寄主植物，且在過去被認為皆屬Cymothoe egesta的兩個隱藏種蛺蝶來回答這些問題。作者群首先利用粒線體DNA的COI片段，試圖區分採自兩種不同寄主植物上的個體，再擴及所有採自泛熱帶非洲區的個體。結果出乎作者的意料之外，這兩種蛺蝶的分布格局幾乎是異域的，僅在初次被發現兩者共域的西非中部有小範圍的交集，再加上遺傳變異的分析結果，顯示分化過程應為異域種化，發生的時間可能在更新世。作者最後探討在理解新近於熱帶非洲發現的隱藏種種化時，此研究結果的意義何在，並認為在地理分布模式與寄主利用的課題上需要更多研究投入。
Abstract
Abstract
Surveys of tropical insects are increasingly uncovering cryptic species – morphologically similar yet reproductively isolated taxa once thought to comprise a single interbreeding entity. The vast majority of such species are described from a single location. This leaves us with little information on geographic range and intraspecific variation and limits our ability to infer the forces responsible for generating such diversity. For example, in herbivorous and parasitic insects, multiple specialists are often discovered within what were thought to be single more generalized species. Host shifts are likely to have contributed to speciation in these cases. But when and where did those shifts occur, and were they facilitated by geographic isolation? We attempted to answer these questions for two cryptic species within the butterfly Cymothoe egesta that were recently discovered on different host plants in central Cameroon. We first used mtDNA markers to separate individuals collected on the two hosts within Cameroon and then extended our analysis to incorporate individuals collected across the entire pan-Afrotropical range of the original taxon. To our surprise, we found that the species are almost entirely allopatric, dividing the original range and overlapping only in the narrow zone of West-Central Africa where they were first discovered in sympatry. This finding, combined with analyses of genetic variation within each butterfly species, strongly suggests that speciation occurred in allopatry, probably during the Pleistocene. We discuss the implications of our results for understanding speciation among other cryptic species recently discovered in the tropics and argue that more work is needed on geographic patterns and host usage in such taxa.
2009年8月18日 星期二
藏於台灣農業試驗所(TARI)楚南仁博收藏中之弄蝶模式標本
文獻來源: Chiba H, Hsu YF, Tsukiyama H, Lo PYF, Chen CR, Wang SM. 2009. Jinhaku Sonan’s skipper type collection deposited at Taiwan Agricultural Research Institute (Lepidoptera: Hesperiidae). Zootaxa 2202: 48–58. [全文下載]Abstract Of the 12 skipper taxa described by Jinhaku Sonan (1892-1984) from Taiwan and Hainan Island, 2 are recognized as valid species-level names, 4 as valid subspecies-level names, whereas the remaining 6 are considered junior subjective synonyms of other taxa. A revised status is established for a Hainan taxon, Tagiades japetus hainana Sonan, stat. rev., and Polytremis kiraizana (Sonan) is formally confirmed as a species endemic to Taiwan. The valid species-level names are Ochlodes niitakanus (Sonan) and Polytremis kiraizana (Sonan). The valid subspecies-level names are Lobocla bifasciata kodairai Sonan, Pseudocoladenia dan sadakoe Sonan & Mitono, Notocrypta feisthamelii arisana Sonan, and Tagiades japetus hainana Sonan. Tagiades menaka kotoshona Sonan is considered a junior subjective synonym of T. trebellius martinus Plötz, Ampittia maro matsumurai Sonan a junior subjective synonym of Ampittia dioscorides etura Mabille, Parnara kotoshona Sonan a junior subjective synonym of Parnara guttata (Bremer & Grey), Parnara ranrunna Sonan a junior subjective synonym of Caltoris cahira austeni (Moore), Gangara thyrsis hainana Sonan a junior subjective synonym of Gangara thyrsis thyrsis (Fabricius), and Telicota palmarum hainanum Sonan a junior subjective synonym of Cephrenes acalle oceanica (Mabille) in the present study.
美洲偽燈蛾亞科(=透翅舟蛾亞科, 槲舟蛾亞科)的屬級系統分類
文獻來源: Miller JS. 2009. Generic revision of the Dioptinae (Lepidoptera: Noctuoidea: Notodontidae) Part 1: Dioptini. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 321: 1-674. [全文下載]
Miller JS. 2009. Generic revision of the Dioptinae (Lepidoptera: Noctuoidea: Notodontidae) Part 2: Josiini. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 321: 675-1022. [全文下載]
Abstract
The moth subfamily Dioptinae is almost entirely neotropical. One species—Phryganidia californica—occurs on the west coast of the US, while the remaining taxa are found from Mexico south to northern Argentina and Uruguay. None is known from the Old World. Most dioptines are diurnal as adults, and many exhibit aposematic coloration. A few taxa are nocturnal. Their larval hosts include the families Passifloraceae, Violaceae and Poaceae, plants famous for their use by important butterfly groups.
In this paper, a revised generic classification for the Dioptinae is presented. Nearly 17,000 specimens, assembled from 38 private and institutional collections worldwide, form the basis for the first comprehensive analysis of adult morphology in the subfamily. A subset of 115 exemplar species, chosen to represent structural diversity across the Dioptinae, is subjected to detailed morphological study and cladistic analysis. The resulting matrix includes 305 characters delineated by 938 character states. Cladistic analyses produced a single most parsimonious tree, rooted using three species from the Nystaleinae—the sister-subfamily to the Dioptinae. This phylogenetic hypothesis provides the framework for a revised classification.
The 456 species are assigned to 43 genera in two tribes; 10 species are treated as incertae sedis. Twelve genera are synonymized, and seven—Argentala, Chrysoglossa, Nebulosa, Notascea, Pikroprion, Proutiella, and Sagittala—are described as new. The 36 remaining genera are redescribed. Sixteen genera are further subdivided into species groups. All 574 species-group names of previous authors are addressed; in nearly all cases, primary type material was examined. Forty-seven species are newly synonymized, while 31 names are revived from synonymy. The revised classification includes 118 new combinations. Sixty-four species belonging in 30 different genera are newly described from Brazil, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, French Guiana, Guyana, Mexico, Panama, Peru, and Venezuela.
An illustrated overview of dioptine morphology is presented, demonstrating remarkable variation in a wide range of structures. Dichotomous keys utilizing external adult anatomy are provided to the tribes, genera, species groups and species. The salient features of each genus are figured and described. Heads, labial palpi, antennae, metathoracic tympani, wing scales, wing venation, and male and female terminalia are shown through line drawings, photographs, and scanning electron micrographs. Each species is diagnosed, its habitus is illustrated in color, type material is notated, and a summary of its known geographical distribution is presented.
General themes, as exemplified by the Dioptinae, are discussed. These include: Estimating species diversity in neotropical Lepidoptera; the evolution of aposematic coloration and mimicry; patterns of host-plant use; and the potential utility of characters from immature stages and DNA for further refining our understanding of dioptine evolution.
2009年8月13日 星期四
蝶種分布位移之歷史校準預測: 以全球變遷作為一個假性試驗
Historically calibrated predictions of butterfly species' range shift using global change as a pseudo-experiment HEATHER M. KHAROUBA,1 ADAM C. ALGAR, AND JEREMY T. KERR2Department of Biology, University of Ottawa, 30 Marie Curie, P.O. Box 450 Station A, Ottawa, Ontario K1N6N5 Canada
全球變遷具有造成大滅絕的潛力。預知物種對於可預測的改變會如何反應使有效保護他們並降低滅絕率的先決條件。物種棲位模型在這類預測中被廣泛應用，然而在長期尺度上的可靠性則具有變化。然而，北半球國家的氣候與土地利用改變為預測未來情形的模型可靠度提供了假性實驗測試，物種分布與環境狀況的歷史資料均可取得。運用最大熵原理，一個重要的模擬技術，我們可以重建橫跨加拿大地區蝴蝶物種的歷史分布模型，然後用此模型模擬出現今物種分布範圍以和實際情形對照，得知其預測的準確度。對大多數的蝴蝶物種而言，我們所預測物種的推估會對已知的氣候變化有反應，與物種反應的觀測值一致(平均自迴歸 R2 ¼ 0.70)。此一致性在來自北方的物種與廣佈種中下降。作者的結果顯示，至少有一部分的物種會隨著氣候變遷而在廣大的地理區中改變分布範圍，且其改變可以藉由棲位模型被準確預測。然而，作者也發現儘管在模型運算時有很高的空間模型準確度、某些物種在此模型中隨著時間預測仍是失敗的，突現出在基本經營管理決策上所需應是物種的組成、而非單一物種。
Abstract.
Global changes have the potential to cause a mass extinction. Predicting how species will respond to anticipated changes is a necessary prerequisite to effectively conserving them and reducing extinction rates. Species niche models are widely used for such predictions, but their reliability over long time periods is known to vary. However, climate and land use changes in northern countries provide a pseudo-experiment to test model reliability for predicting future conditions, provided historical data on both species distributions and environmental conditions are available. Using maximum entropy, a prominent modeling technique, we constructed historical models of butterfly species’ ranges across Canada and then ran the models forward to present-day to test how well they predicted the current ranges of species. For the majority of species, projections of how we predicted species would respond to known climate changes corresponded with species’ observed responses (mean autoregressive R2 ¼ 0.70). This correspondence declined for northerly and very widely distributed species. Our results demonstrate that at least some species are tracking shifting climatic conditions across very large geographic areas and that these shifts can be predicted accurately using niche models. We also found, however, that models for some species fail when projected through time despite high spatial model accuracies during model training, highlighting the need to base management decisions on species assemblages, not individual species.
Key words: butterflies; Canada; climate change; land use change; macroecology; maximum entropy;range shifts; space-for-time substitution; species assemblages; species niche models.
2009年8月8日 星期六
雌性普羅大蠶蛾交配多次具有何種功能？
photo by natural born hikersEugene S. Morton
The American Midland Naturalist Jul 2009 : Vol. 162, Issue 1, pg(s) 7-18 doi: 10.1674/0003-0031-162.1.7
作者在半自然的條件下對普羅大蠶蛾(Callosamia promethea)與鵝掌楸蠶蛾(C. angulifera) 進行一妻多夫現象之比較。普羅大蠶蛾是天蠶蛾科中首先被文獻描述具有一妻多夫制的種類，而鵝掌楸蠶蛾則是一夫制的。實驗顯示一妻多夫和一妻一夫的普羅大蠶蛾雌性可達到近似的卵受精率，但是多夫的雌性能多產下10%的卵，具有顯著的差異。這些差異是從同一棵寄主植物上取食的五個普羅大蠶蛾手足群體中發現的。一妻多夫的普羅大蠶蛾具有的較高生殖力與雌性的體型、交配持續時間、卵的大小或數量、產卵的天數或屬於何手足群體均沒有關連。所有的雌性在產卵期尾聲時的卵尺寸均較小，體型小的雌蛾在產卵期中較早產下多量的卵。分別的標記再捕捉法研究顯示雄性的普羅大蠶蛾也交配多次（一夫多妻）、且在擇偶偏好上喜好未交配過的處女蛾。日間交配的普羅大蠶蛾可能可增加遺傳多樣性 與/和 由多夫制中得到來自精液的贈與。夜行性的天蠶蛾科物種均為一夫制，可能導因於產卵與交配兩者的時間衝突凌駕於多夫制的好處之上。若多夫制可增加繁殖力，則可推測在其他的日行性天蠶蛾中也會發生。
Abstract
Promethea (Callosamia promethea) and tulip tree silk moths (C. angulifera) were compared under semi-natural conditions for the presence of polyandry. Promethea were polyandrous, the first documentation for a saturniid moth, whereas tulip tree moths were monandrous. Experiments showed that polyandrous and monandrous promethea females achieved similar egg fertility, but polyandrous females laid 10% more eggs, a significant difference (P < 0.05). This difference was found in five sibling groups, whose larvae were reared on the same individual food plant. Higher fecundity for polyandrous promethea females was not related to female size, duration of copulation, egg size and number, number of days in laying period or sibling group. Egg size declined later in the laying period for all females. Small females laid more eggs earlier in the laying period than large females. A separate mark/recapture study showed that male promethea also mate multiple times (polygyny) and distinguish virgin from nonvirgin females in mating preference. The diurnally mating promethea may gain increased genetic variability and/or possibly seminal gifts from polyandry. Monandry in totally nocturnal saturniid moths may result from a time conflict between egg laying and mating, which overrides the benefits of polyandry. If polyandry increases fecundity, it is predicted to occur in other diurnally mating saturniids.
Received: March 3, 2008; Accepted: April 21, 2008
Abstract
Promethea (Callosamia promethea) and tulip tree silk moths (C. angulifera) were compared under semi-natural conditions for the presence of polyandry. Promethea were polyandrous, the first documentation for a saturniid moth, whereas tulip tree moths were monandrous. Experiments showed that polyandrous and monandrous promethea females achieved similar egg fertility, but polyandrous females laid 10% more eggs, a significant difference (P < 0.05). This difference was found in five sibling groups, whose larvae were reared on the same individual food plant. Higher fecundity for polyandrous promethea females was not related to female size, duration of copulation, egg size and number, number of days in laying period or sibling group. Egg size declined later in the laying period for all females. Small females laid more eggs earlier in the laying period than large females. A separate mark/recapture study showed that male promethea also mate multiple times (polygyny) and distinguish virgin from nonvirgin females in mating preference. The diurnally mating promethea may gain increased genetic variability and/or possibly seminal gifts from polyandry. Monandry in totally nocturnal saturniid moths may result from a time conflict between egg laying and mating, which overrides the benefits of polyandry. If polyandry increases fecundity, it is predicted to occur in other diurnally mating saturniids.
Received: March 3, 2008; Accepted: April 21, 2008
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