翅、角與眼紋：複雜的特徵如何演化出來?

Wings, Horns, and Butterfly Eyespots: How Do Complex Traits Evolve?

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Antónia Monteiro and Ondrej Podlaha (2009) PLoS Biol 7(2): e1000037

在演化的過程中，生物發展出各式各樣複雜的特徵以提升其生存或生殖機會，諸如昆蟲的翅膀可增進擴散能力、甲蟲碩大的角幫助求偶、蝶與蛾的眼斑用以嚇退天敵，但究竟這些複雜的特徵從何而來，仍是個未解之謎。近四十年來的研究發現，新的特徵是由舊的基因以新的連結方式所產生，但是細節仍然未知，究竟是舊的基因同時產生全新的連結方式？還是一串串原已連結好的基因再被選入發育為新特徵的過程中？

目前，關於取得適應或是新的形態特徵的了解大多來自於單一基因的研究。
一部分著重於酵素編碼位置的突變對於形態所造成的影響，另一方面剖析引起現存特徵改變或消失在遺傳或發育上有何變化。但鮮少有研究直接處理新的複雜特徵在遺傳或發育上的起源。

有功能的新的複雜網絡如何產生？
複雜的特徵需要許多轉錄因子與訊號傳遞路徑的協調去引導它的發育，建立一個全新的發育途徑涉及逐一連結許多基因、需要每一個突變從漂變成為穩定、或者確認在中間過程的每一步有某些選汰優勢。雖然這樣冗長的過程並非完全沒有可能，它也可採取較少步驟的方式- 將已存在的基因網路重新共同選擇(Gene network co-option)，在接著作些微的修飾使其角色最符合新的發育特徵。
Gene network co-option幾乎是個新概念，常被用來解釋為何同一組基因會表現在兩個不同的發育脈絡上，例如Distal-less (Dll)基因表現在甲蟲成蟲的角的末梢、也表現在蝴蝶眼紋的中央，其下游基因spalt也同時表現在觸角和眼紋上。但是新網絡連結的觀念仍然只是個可能的假說，尚未發展出進一步測試去分辨兩者的機制，因為兩個非此即彼的機制非常難以覺察。兩個不同源的特徵共用相似的基因、並具有相似的時間上表現樣式，有兩種可能的解釋： (1)同一個基因網絡被增選(co-option)以產生兩個非同源特徵；(2)這些發育脈絡使用相同的基因建立相似卻互相獨立的基因網絡。

如何應付這個問題？
作者提出一個經驗上的測試將基因網絡增選(co-option)從全新的網絡演化中區辨出來，假設這些不同的演化模式在該網絡的基因上產生不同數量的調控單元(cis-regulatory elements, CREs)，CREs與基因在發育網絡上的連結可以提供演化歷史的資訊。當co-option產生時，與上游調控基因相連的CREs應該會繼續在多個發育脈絡中具有功能，這挑戰了最初的發育遺傳學上所暗示的假設-一個CRE驅動一個特定樣式的基因表現且造成一個特定的發育脈絡。

如何找出基因網絡的co-option？
對於新的特徵在基因網絡層面上是如何重新”接線”的，作者提出兩種不同的方案：(1)透過上游基因X的CRE之演化作co-option，則其下游Y和Z基因的CREs應可表現在兩個不同的發育脈絡上(如下圖B).；(2)Y和Z基因專屬且複雜的CREs需為每一個發育脈絡各自演化，並整合來自上游的調節因子以表現在正確的組織或器官上(如下圖C)，新增的CREs必須來自新的演化而非具有多效性功能。 哪些資料支持CREs可作用在多個發育脈絡上？
作者舉出一些實例如下圖，這些資料推測一個網絡的co-option是由於上游調節因子的調度，再號召內部網絡中的基因形成新的發育脈絡，形成多功能(且具多效性表現的)CREs。

哪些資料支持新連結網絡演化的存在？
為了將兩個相似的基因網絡認定為非同源(nonhomologous)，在以作者提出的骨架檢驗其基因網絡連結細節之前，重要的是先確認它們的相似是來自於直向同源(orthologous) 而不是旁系同源(paralogous)、且基因之間相同功能適當連結連結。以眼睛的發育網絡舉例，其某些組成的基因不符合上列原則，可能是這些基因在不同的支系以全新的方式連結。比較昆蟲與脊椎動物的眼睛發育網絡，即便其中某些基因是相似的，但是某些基因並非orthologous而是paralogous copies，且兩者功能上的關係是不同的。此例比較不同生物間的基因網絡而非同一個個體之內，但核心問題是一樣的：這兩種不同的眼睛發育網絡是否來自於同一個祖先？
由於這些旁系同源基因(sine oculis in Drosophila, and Six3 and Optx2 in Xenopus)早在昆蟲與脊椎動物分化之前即已存在，假設它們在各自的支系中發展出眼睛發育網絡，或假設這兩份copies如副本般保存、且長期冗贅地表現眼睛基因直到在各自的支系中被壓制，前者會比後者更儉約。

多效性CREs有何演化上的暗示？
生物學家對於何種基因改變對於適應性演化變異最有影響存有爭議，主要被認為會發生改變的兩個位置為調節DNA與蛋白質編碼DNA，爭議的中心為那個位置遭受最少量的多效性(pleiotropy)。支持non-coding DNA region的人認為模組化的CREs允許基因發展出新的功能且不至於减損就有的功能，因為不需要發生蛋白質序列上的改變。但是現有的證據顯示，蛋白質(包括Hox proteins)本身高度地模組化，亦即蛋白質的不同部位可與不同的co-factors結合，而蛋白質的修改也許會影響其中一種功能、但並非同時影響所有功能。作者認為討論蛋白質或調節序列何者對適應性演化有較大的作用，或許太過簡化甚至可能誤導，這兩者都可以模組化且具多效性，故討論應該轉而著重於是否模組化的網絡在發育系統中是常見的、網絡的大小、基因網絡的co-option在建構基因的調解區域時扮演何種角色。另一個重點是，CREs包含了許多型的轉錄因子結合區域，可調節位在同一個空間區域中基因或對同一個環境刺激作出反應。

關於解答
對於完全了解新特徵如何演化出來仍有待努力，作者在本文提出一個試驗性的骨架供測試新的特徵是否由已經存在的基因網絡中演化而來。為解答此問題，必須持續探索還有哪些基因在不同的特徵上有作用、以鑑定出那些作用類似整合或脈絡不敏感的基因網絡，這些基因的CREs應該在橫跨不同發育脈絡的多個表現區域上進行測試。如果同一個CRE驅使基因表現在不同的結構上，網絡重新增補便是最可能的機制；假如並非如此，則此網絡連結可能是全新打造的了。

相關背景知識參考
新世紀生命科學課程改進計畫 發育生物學 第十五章

變態之後殘留的記憶:一隻蛾能記得幼蟲時代所學的事嗎?

Retention of Memory through Metamorphosis: Can a Moth Remember What It Learned As a Caterpillar?

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PLoS ONE 3(3): e1736
Douglas J. Blackiston, Elena Silva Casey, Martha R. Weiss*
Department of Biology, Georgetown University, Washington, D. C., United States of America

究竟在經過激烈的變態以後，蝶或蛾是否能記得幼蟲時期的記憶呢？科學家推測蝶與蛾在變態之後帶有幼蟲時期有關痛苦的記憶。該研究利用綠色的煙草天蛾(Manduca sexta)幼蟲進行實驗，經過三週以菸草葉餵食，幼蟲會進入具有褐色外骨骼的蛹期，約有18-24小時其內部狀似濃湯，一切結構分解並由其消化管重新再組成中央神經系統，最後羽化時已成由內到外都全新的、具有翅、複眼與口器的天蛾成蟲。

在果蠅的研究中，已發現幼蟲期的記憶與神經連結能夠在激烈的身體大翻修後保存下來，但是此現象在天蛾身上尚未明瞭。曾有研究指出天蛾成蟲會偏愛其幼蟲時期取食的寄主植物，然而存疑者認為這並非受記憶的影響、而是因為幼蟲在寄主植物上化蛹且在原處羽化。

本研究以Y型路徑選擇裝置進行行為實驗，實驗組幼蟲先以條件制約方式使五齡幼蟲學習到把乙酸乙酯 (EA, Ethyl Acetate)的氣味與溫和的電極聯想在一起，結果顯示未接受過電極或只單純受過電極的幼蟲，對於EA的氣味並沒有偏好或厭惡的選擇，但是曾同時受過EA+電極八次的五齡幼蟲，則明顯地表現出厭惡EA氣味的選擇，且此選擇直到羽化為成蟲仍然保持。若以三齡幼蟲進行EA+電極配對實驗，結果直到五齡幼蟲時仍能表現出對EA厭惡的選擇，但是經過變態為成蟲之後則對EA沒有顯著的厭惡表現了。至於蛹期所接觸的環境中化學物質則並未改變成蟲的選擇偏好：對未經實驗處理的蛹施以EA氣味，其羽化成蟲對EA或新鮮空氣的選擇沒有顯著差異，而已對幼蟲施予EA+電極配對實驗後的蛹雖經過洗滌，其羽化成蟲仍然厭惡EA氣味。
Abstract
Insects that undergo complete metamorphosis experience enormous changes in both morphology and lifestyle. The current study examines whether larval experience can persist through pupation into adulthood in Lepidoptera, and assesses two possible mechanisms that could underlie such behavior: exposure of emerging adults to chemicals from the larval environment, or associative learning transferred to adulthood via maintenance of intact synaptic connections. Fifth instar Manduca sexta caterpillars received an electrical shock associatively paired with a specific odor in order to create a conditioned odor aversion, and were assayed for learning in a Y choice apparatus as larvae and again as adult moths. We show that larvae learned to avoid the training odor, and that this aversion was still present in the adults. The adult aversion did not result from carryover of chemicals from the larval environment, as neither applying odorants to naı¨ve pupae nor washing the pupae of trained caterpillars resulted in a change in behavior. In addition, we report that larvae trained at third instar still showed odor aversion after two molts, as fifth instars, but did not avoid the odor as adults, consistent with the idea that post-metamorphic recall involves regions of the brain that are not produced until later in larval development. The present study, the first to demonstrate conclusively that associative memory survives metamorphosis in Lepidoptera, provokes intriguing new questions about the organization and persistence of the central nervous system during metamorphosis. Our results have both ecological and evolutionary implications, as retention of memory through metamorphosis could influence host choice by polyphagous insects, shape habitat selection, and lead to eventual sympatric speciation.

相關參考:
Homepahe of Dr. Martha R. Weiss:Caterpillar Behavior
Shocked Moth Remembers Past Life as Caterpillar! By Devin Powell ScienceNOW Daily News 5 March 2008

[博物館] McGuire Center for Lepidoptera and Biodiversity (美國 佛羅里達)

McGuire Center for Lepidoptera and Biodiversity 兼具研究與大眾教育之功能，位在佛羅里達大學Gainesville校區，包括活生生的雨林與鱗翅目展覽場地、以及佔地39,000坪方英尺的研究實驗室與館藏空間，目前已經有系統地收藏超過400萬份標本，館藏規模僅次於擁有約870萬份鱗翅目標本的倫敦自然史博物館(Natural History Museum in London)。研究空間包括分子遺傳學、掃描式電子顯微鏡、影像分析、瀕危物種保育與圈養、光學顯微鏡和標本製備等空間，此外尚有教室與12間研究員、館藏經理與職員的辦公室，空間寬敞且明亮，許多著名的鱗翅學者如K. Willmott、J. Miller、J. Heppner等都在此中心任職。

這個中心另一個特別之處在於其經費來自龐大的私人捐款，2001年春天，正當許多自然史博物館正在縮小昆蟲部門的規模時，佛羅里達大學接獲一筆提供來興建世界上規模最大的蝴蝶與蛾類研究教育中心- McGuire Center for Lepidoptera-的捐款，預計在2003年完工並收藏至少六百萬份標本，成為美國最大的館藏之一。最初420萬美金的捐款是由聯合健康保險集團(UnitedHealth Group) 當時的總裁 Dr. William W. McGuire 與他的妻子Nadine M. McGuire所捐贈，這是美國的昆蟲系統學界獲贈過最大筆的私人捐款，佛羅里達州政府撥款提供一致的經費以完成這個計畫。

Dr. McGuire 是一位醫生，同時也是頗具造詣的業餘鱗翅學家，選擇佛羅里達大學的原因是當其他大學或機構都縮減收藏規模時，唯有佛羅里達大學持續擴展其收藏。 據第一任也是現任館長 -鱗翅學者Dr. Thomas C. Emmel表示，該館與其他機構的另一個不同點在於其首要任務並非強調保育、氣候變遷或棲地喪失等議題，而是與其他國家取得研究當地生物多樣性的協議，許多較低開發的國家仰賴生物多樣性調查來使休耕田作為類似國家公園的保留區。

該館大多數的館藏來自原先屬於佛羅里達大學的大量卻散亂的收藏品，包括位在Sarasota的Allyn Museum of Entomology和位在Gainesville的Florida State Collection of Arthropods，其他的標本捐贈與收購預期會很快地使館藏超過600萬份標本，但是將會有二到三倍的空間足以因應未來數十年的收藏，約可擴增達2,000萬份。

目前的公開展場主要分成兩個部分：Butterfly Rainforest與Butterfly exhibit，前者是一個種植了熱帶與亞熱帶植物大花園，內有瀑布與步道，固定時間會釋放館方飼育的來自世界各地的蝴蝶，導覽遊客認識各種蝴蝶；後者生動的介紹鱗翅目相關的知識，最引人注目的是一大面由上萬隻鱗翅目標本與照片所組成的"Wall of Wings"，還有來自世界各地的攝影畫面。
相關參考：
Florida Museum of Natural History

McGuire Center News: McGuire Center Newsletter - April 2008, Issue 2

• Print version, 12.1 MB (PDF)
  
  
• Web version, 3.3 MB (PDF)

The NY Times：Florida to Get Major Butterfly Center. By Steve Coates, published: March 20, 2001

由分子證據重建尺蛾科高階親緣關係並討論冬尺蛾類群的演化

文獻來源: Yamamoto S, Sota T. 2007. Phylogeny of the Geometridae and the evolution of winter moths inferred from a simultaneous analysis of mitochondrial and nuclear genes. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 44(2): 711-723. [全文連結]

Abstract
Geometridae is one of the most diverse families within the Lepidoptera, comprising nine subfamilies. Winter moths, which have a unique life history, are found in three subfamilies. To examine the phylogeny of the Geometridae at the subfamily level and determine the evolutionary history of winter moths, we constructed phylogenetic trees for all nine geometrid subfamilies using two mitochondrial and two nuclear gene sequences. Specimens of all subfamilies were sampled from Japan. Simultaneous analyses of the combined data from all genes revealed that the Geometridae comprised two major clades: one with subfamilies Larentiinae and Sterrhinae, and the other with the remaining seven subfamilies. The second clade included the largest subfamily, Ennominae, and the subfamily Archiearinae, which is traditionally considered to be an ancestral lineage of the Geometridae. The Larentiinae + Sterrhinae clade contained one winter moth lineage, and the second major clade consisted of three winter moth lineages, including Alsophilinae, which contains winter moths exclusively. Using a Bayesian inference of divergence times, we estimated that geometrids began to diverge 54 Mya (62–48 Mya), whereas winter moth lineages differentiated from non-winter moth lineages 34–12 Mya, during the global cooling events in the Oligocene and the early Miocene. The adaptation to cool climates may have been a preadaptation that facilitated the winter moth life cycle.

簡介
尺蛾科為鱗翅目具有高多樣性的類群，全世界物種數約為兩萬一千種，除南北兩極以外皆有分佈。據過去十多年內以形態 (Holloway, 1996, 1997)和分子證據(Abraham et al., 2001)進行尺蛾科高階親緣關係的研究，將其內主要劃分為九個亞科 (如下，台灣產其中七亞科，以括號表示台灣所含物種數):
Archiearinae
Alsophilinae
Sterrhinae 姬尺蛾亞科 (大約85種)
Larentinae 波尺蛾亞科 (大約235種)
Geometrinae 青尺蛾亞科 (大約105種)
Ennominae 枝尺蛾亞科 (超過370種)
Oenochrominae 星尺蛾亞科 (4種)
Orthostixinae (1種)
Desmobathrinae (4種)

此文章於2006年投稿並被期刊接受，而此研究為了增加分類群取樣的數量以及其發生期的詳細紀錄(主要用以討論冬尺蛾*的演化)，從2004年即開始於日本進行採集計畫，而方法上以較多的分子序列(粒線體DNA(COI-II, 16S)與核DNA(EF-1α , 28S))與更多的分類群取樣(含括九個尺蛾亞科)來重建尺蛾科高階親緣關係。

以下簡述文章結論與重要討論:

1. 有四組序列合併所得的樹形被分為兩個主要的支系，一是波尺蛾亞科加上姬尺蛾亞科，另一是其餘的七個亞科，當中包含了佔有所有尺蛾種數35%的枝尺蛾亞科，以及過去被認為是尺蛾類基群的Archiearinae亞科，而僅有冬尺蛾類群的Alsophilinae則埋入枝尺蛾亞科支系，並且未與枝尺蛾亞科內之冬尺蛾類群形成單系群；
2. 過去冬尺蛾類群據形態分類學，被處理於3亞科12屬中，並認為冬尺蛾的出現是為了躲避天敵的捕食；此篇文章取樣了3亞科5屬7種，並與Abraham et al. (2001)皆證實冬尺蛾非單系群，而是獨立演化了至少四次；另此篇文章由分子鐘定年並配合地質年表與事件，推論冬尺蛾的演化源自晚秋自初春之間活動的尺蛾類群，而冬尺蛾的出現可能是由於地質史上的漸新世至中新世早期間，氣候轉趨寒冷的結果，然促進與維持冬尺蛾在僅在冬季活動的選汰作用尚不明。
3. 雖然Alsophilinae亞科支系在親緣關係樹中被埋入枝尺蛾亞科內，此文章並未對其做任何分類上的處理。

台灣的冬尺蛾類群紀錄共有兩筆，一比是波尺蛾亞科的Operophtera brumata (Linnaeus, 1758)(國外影像連結)，一筆是枝尺蛾亞科的Phigalia owadai Nakajima, 1994 (模式標本影像；生態影像連結)，兩者目前尚未有無翅雌蟲的紀錄。


*冬尺蛾(winter geometrid moths)是一群冬季活動的尺蛾類群通稱，這類尺蛾在親緣上並非單系群，而分類上被歸屬於3亞科(波尺蛾亞科、枝尺蛾亞科與Alsophilinae亞科)12屬中，其中Alsophilinae完全由冬尺蛾所組成。冬尺蛾的雌蟲具有無翅(wingless)或短翅(brachypterous)與退化的口器(brachystomatous)等特殊的形態，由於特殊的型態以及一些種類被認為是害蟲而被加以研究；Niitsu(2001)藉由觀察枝尺蛾亞科的冬尺蛾屬Nyssiodes lefuarius之蛹期發育，證實此種雌蟲的缺翅形態是由於蛹期的細胞凋零所致。

近期尺蛾與冬尺蛾相關文獻參考:

• Abraham, et al. (2001). Molecular phylogeny of the subfamilies in geometridae (Geometroidea : Lepidoptera). Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 20(1): 65-77.
• Beljaev, E. A. (2006). A morphological approach to the Ennominae phylogeny (Lepidoptera, Geometridae). Spixiana 29(3): 215-216.
• Holloway, J. D. (1996). The Moths of Borneo: Part 9; Family Geometridae, subfamily Oenochrominae, Desmobathrinae and Geometrinae. Malayan Nature Journal 49(3-4): 147-326.
• Holloway, J. D. (1997). The Moths of Borneo: Part 12; Family Geometridae, subfamily Sterrhinae and Larentiinae. Malayan Nature Journal 51(1-4): 1-242.
• Niitsu, S. (2001). Wing degeneration due to apoptosis in the female of the winter moth Nyssiodes lefuarius (Lepidoptera, Geometridae). Entomological Science 4(1): 1-7.
• Sihvonen, P. (2005). Phylogeny and classification of the Scopulini moths (Lepidoptera : Geometridae, Sterrhinae). Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 143(4): 473-530.
• Sihvonen, P. and L. Kaila (2004). Phylogeny and tribal classification of Sterrhinae with emphasis on delimiting Scopulini (Lepidoptera : Geometridae). Systematic Entomology 29(3): 324-358.
• Sihvonen, P. and M. Siljander (2005). Species diversity and geographical distribution of Scopulini moths (Lepidoptera : Geometridae, Sterrhinae) on a world-wide scale. Biodiversity and Conservation 14(3): 703-721.
  

台灣尺蛾科生態影像連結:
台灣的尺蛾/ Geometrid Moths of Taiwan (Geometridae) (Bettaman)

黃枯舟蛾屬名由Besaia變更為Curruza

文獻來源: Kobayashi H, Kishida Y, Wang M. 2008. The genus Curuzza stat. rev. and two new taxa (Notodontidae, Lepidoptera). Tinea 20(4): 236-242.

東亞與東南亞的舟蛾屬級分類一直處於相當混亂的狀態. 尤其是有一些對分類處理十分不謹慎但又十分活躍的業餘分類學者在近20年來幾乎讓整個系統朝著更混亂的方向走. 在這篇文章中, 小林秀紀, 岸田泰則與王敏對於所謂的篦舟蛾(Besaia)的有效性提出質疑, 並建議以Kiriakoff於1962年根據Pydna frugalis Leech, 1898建立的Curuzza代表這個類群成為其有效的屬名. 這整個過程導因於Kiriakoff當年所顯示的模式種雄性生殖器圖片與Schintlmeister於1992年所解剖的雄性選模標本完全不同. 因此小林等人建議依據ICZN 70.3的條款, 也就是"誤訂模式物種"的相關條款, 將Curruza的模式種指定為Schintlmeister於1997年發表的Besaia (Curruza) bryki. 這聽起來真的十分的複雜. 小林等人也不同意Schintlmeister的概念將Besaia拆解為不同的亞屬. 此外, 本文與台灣相關的分類處理包含將Besaia (Curuzza) ronkayorum Schintlmeister, 2005修訂為Curuzza ronkayorum (Schintlmeister, 2005)

圖片連結: 科博館自然與人文數位博物館

何者決定熱帶非洲尺蛾科的多樣性：植物多樣性，植被結構還是非生物因子？

本圖片由Tambako the Jaguar上載至flickr

Determinants of diversity in afrotropical herbivorous insects (Lepidoptera: Geometridae): plant diversity, vegetation structure or abiotic factors?

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Journal of Biogeography (J. Biogeogr.) (2009) 36: 337–349
Jan C. Axmacher1*, Gunnar Brehm2, Andreas Hemp3, Henry Tu¨nte4, Herbert V. M. Lyaruu5, Klaus Mu¨ller-Hohenstein4 and Konrad Fiedler
1UCL Department of Geography, University College London, London, UK, 2Institut fu¨r Spezielle Zoologie mit Phyletischem Museum, Friedrich-Schiller-Universita¨t Jena, Jena, 3Department of Plant Systematics, Universita¨t Bayreuth, Bayreuth, Germany, 4Department of Biogeography, Universita¨t Bayreuth, Bayreuth, Germany, 5Department of Botany, University of Dar es Salaam, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania and 6Department of Population Ecology, Vienna Ecology Centre, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria

此研究於非洲第一高峰吉力馬札羅山在海拔1200到3150 m的範圍設置48個樣點400平方公尺的樣區，在各樣區中央針對植食性且具高多樣性的昆蟲類群 - 尺蛾科，以燈光誘集方式進行物種數量與物種更替率調查，並比較其與樣區內維管束植物種類、植被結構(包含樹冠分層、覆蓋度、葉片外形、分枝形式等資料)之關係。結果顯示尺蛾物種的多樣性與樣區內常見植物的科內物種多樣性有關(R2 = 0.49)，且與植物結構指數有關(R2 = 0.22)，但與整體的植物多樣性無顯著相關。尺蛾的物種更替率與植物科級多樣性之改變範圍有明顯關聯(40% explained variance)，與植被外觀的改變關聯較低(25%)，與整體的植物多樣性關聯更弱(5%)。然而上述大部分的比較缺乏直接關聯，透過溫度和溼度等環境因子則會同時影響植被與蛾類相，尺蛾科物種多樣性和潛在寄主植物間可能的直接連結顯得更弱。整體植物物種豐富度與尺蛾科多樣性缺乏顯著關聯，暗示熱帶的尺蛾可能對寄主植物並不太有選擇性。因此，植物多樣性與植食者的物種多樣性間的清楚關聯被認為是過於簡化的想法，維管束植物多樣性亦不能被普遍地通用為昆蟲的多樣性指標。

ABSTRACT
Aim This study was conducted to investigate the potential of predicting alpha diversity and turnover rates of a highly diverse herbivorous insect family (Geometridae) based on vascular plant species richness and vegetation structure.

Location The study was carried out on the south-western slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro within a wide range of habitats between 1200 and 3150 m elevation.

Methods The floristic and structural composition of the vegetation was recorded at 48 plots of 400 m2. Geometrid moths were sampled manually at light sources located at the plot centres. Principal components analysis, redundancy analysis and multiple linear regression were used to explore how alpha diversity and species turnover of geometrid moths are related to vegetation structure and plant species richness.

Results Alpha diversity of geometrid moths was significantly correlated with species diversity patterns in the
most common vascular plant families (R2 = 0.49) and with plant structural parameters (R2 = 0.22), but not with overall floristic diversity. Species turnover of geometrid moths was strongly linked to diversity changes in a range of plant families (40% explained variance), less strongly to changes in vegetation physiognomy (25%), and only weakly to overall floristic diversity (5%). Changes in elevation were a better predictor of both alpha diversity and species turnover of geometrid moths than any principal component extracted from the vegetation data.

Main conclusions Vegetation composition, diversity and structure all showed significant correlations with the diversity and species composition of geometrid moth assemblages. Nevertheless, in most cases relationships were indirect, via environmental parameters such as temperature and humidity, which influenced both vegetation and moth fauna. Possible direct links between geometrid diversity and potential food plants were much weaker. The lack of a significant correlation between overall plant species richness and geometrid diversity indicates that tropical geometrid moths may not be very selective in their food plant choice. Accordingly, a clear correlation between floral diversity and herbivore species richness must be regarded as overly simplistic, and the diversity of vascular plants cannot universally be used as a suitable biodiversity indicator for diverse insect taxa at higher trophic levels.

蠶蛾總科的雄性生殖器骨片及肌肉之基本結構

The principal structure of male genital sclerites and muscles of bombycoid moths, with special reference to Anthelidae (Lepidoptera: Bombycoidea)

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Arthropod Structure & Development 38:147–161

Andreas Zwick a,b (2009)
a Australian National Insect Collection, CSIRO Entomology, GPO Box 1700, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia
b School of Botany and Zoology, The Australian National University, Canberra, ACT, Australia

Abstract
Male genital structures and muscles of bombycoid moths have repeatedly been misidentified in the literature. Furthermore, the genital structures of some bombycoid families, such as the poorly known Australo-New Guinean Anthelidae, have essentially remained unstudied. Based on comparative morphology, this study details the principal arrangements of male genital sclerites and muscles in all bombycoid families, with particular focus on basic structures and their modifications in Anthelidae. Emphasis is placed on the homology of and fusions between these structures and their function, providing a basis for the interpretation of modifications in future phylogenetic and taxonomic studies. This includes the unique fusion of gnathos and valvae in several bombycoid families, the arrangement and extent of the fused tegumen and vinculum, as well as the homology of the ‘‘transtilla’’. Further, a modification of the valve adductor muscle (the segment IX sternum to valva muscle, m4) widely regarded as a synapomorphy of Bombycoidea is demonstrated to be non-existent, as is the presumed presence of the valve abductor muscle (the segment IX tergum to valva muscle, m2) in Saturniidae.

蠶蛾總科的雄性生殖器結構及肌肉在文獻中重複地鑑定錯誤，而某些蠶蛾總科下的科(如分布在澳洲-新幾內亞區且鮮為人知的澳蛾科)，其雄性生殖器結構則尚未被研究過。本研究根據比較形態學，詳述蠶蛾總科內的雄性生殖器結構及肌肉之基本排列方式等細節，例如文中提到幾個蠶蛾總科下的科具有獨特的顎形突骨片(gnathos)與抱器(valvae)之癒合、背基突(tegumen)與腹基突(vinculum)癒合的排列與寬度，以及‘‘橫突片(transtilla)’’的同源性。此外抱器內收肌(valve adductor muscle, m4)的變形過去被廣泛地認為是蠶蛾總科的共衍徵，由於天蠶蛾科被推定出現抱器外展肌(valve abductor muscle, 第六節背板與抱器肌, m2)，該論點已被證明為不再正確。這些特徵提供未來在親緣關係與分類學研究之基礎。

波尺蛾亞科的新屬與產自中國的一新種描述

Tricalcaria Han gen. nov., a remarkable new genus with three hind-tibial spurs belonging to the tribe Trichopterygini, with description of a new species from China (Lepidoptera: Geometridae: Larentiinae)
Entomological Science (2008) 11: 409–414

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Dayong XUE, Chunguang WU and Hongxiang HAN
Institute of Zoology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China

Abstract
Tricalcaria Han gen. nov. and its type species Tricalcaria stueningi Han sp. nov. are described from China. Morphological characters, including those of the male and female genitalia, are figured. The main diagnostic characters of Tricalcaria are: hind tibia with three spurs in both male and female; ventral margin of costal protrusion bearing a series of long, hook-like, sclerotized setae in the male genitalia; female papilla analis modified and bearing over part of its surface broad blade-like sclerotized setae. The wing pattern, venation, and genitalia of this genus are compared with those of the most closely related genera, Tristeirometa Holloway, 1997, Hypocometa Warren, 1896, and Phthonoloba Warren, 1893. Tribal placement is discussed, with the conclusion that the new genus should be placed in the tribe Trichopterygini.

Hidden diversity in small brown moths - the systematics of Edosa (Lepidoptera: Tineidae) in Sundaland

Systematics and Biodiversity (2008), 6:319-384 Cambridge University Press
doi:10.1017/S1477200008002685

Hidden diversity in small brown moths – the systematics of Edosa (Lepidoptera: Tineidae) in Sundaland

Gaden S. Robinsona1 c1
Department of Entomology, The Natural History Museum, Cromwell Road, London SW7 5BD, UK

Abstract
This paper is an account of the species of Edosa (Perissomasticinae) inhabiting Sundaland, the area of South-East Asia that comprises the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Java, Bali, Borneo, Palawan and Balabac. Edosa is highly diverse; its members are mostly small to medium-sized brown moths with a characteristic resting posture. They run rapidly with a lurching, scuttling gait, and are commonly encountered in light-collecting throughout the region, but their biology is otherwise unknown. The genus is redefined and its previous taxonomic history and its biological and morphological characteristics are reviewed. Fifty-two species are described, illustrated and keyed; 45 species are new, and one of the seven previously known species, Edosa trita Meyrick, is treated as incertae sedis. The impossibility of associating male and female of the same species (except in a few instances) has necessitated a taxonomy based upon males; females are only described formally where they can be confidently identified, and that applies to very few species. The genitalia of a few tentatively identified females are illustrated also to give some idea of morphological variation. A phylogenetic analysis including representatives of all perissomasticine genera indicates that Neoepiscardia, Cylicobathra and Phalloscardia are groups subordinate within a monophyletic Edosa with which they are here synonymised. Edosa is diagnosed by the male and female genital structure: in the male the uncus has a broad, shouldered base and the bulbus ejaculatorius has a sharp bend at about one-half its length, with the distal region abruptly differentiated into a ‘cup’ which is reflexed caudally back onto the preceding length of the bulbus; females have a complex colliculum consisting of transverse or oblique rings or flanges which are invaginated in many species to form an elongate digitate internal process or pair of processes. It is suggested that, with some 250 species recognised of which 160 are described, Edosa is the most species-rich genus of the Tineidae.

Photo credit: RC Kendrick

鳳蝶與弄蝶的成蟲壽命：以多個物種的成蟲和幼蟲特徵進行比較

Adult life spans of butterflies (Lepidoptera: Papilionoidea+ Hesperioidea): broadscale contingencies with adult and larval traits in multi-species comparisons

Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 96(1): 166-184.

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JAN BECK 1* and KONRAD FIEDLER 2. (2009).

1 Institute of Biogeography, Department of Environmental Sciences, University of Basel, St Johanns-
Vorstadt 10, 4056 Basel, Switzerland
2 Department of Population Ecology, University of Vienna, Althanstrasse 14, 1090 Vienna, Austria

昆蟲的成蟲壽命據推測是適應的生活史的一部分，涉及與交配、卵的成熟、產卵有關的不同繁殖策略。作者預期成蟲壽命與其他形態、行為與生態特徵有關，並以資料探勘的方式，合併以親緣關係作對照，探討由文獻中獲得的350種鳳蝶與弄蝶物種的成蟲壽命與其他特徵相伴發生的廣泛模型。作者發現成蟲的取食習性與壽命有很強的連結，取食花粉者較食果者長壽、食蜜者再次之。此外，能降低被捕食者捕捉的特徵(如警戒色、眼紋)亦與長壽有關；而吸取泥漿以作為獲取礦物質或氮源之行為則通常與短壽相關。作者也發現物種的分布區域對壽命有顯著的影響，但是分析田野資料(熱帶物種較長壽)與圈養資料(來自熱帶的物種較短壽)得到互斥的結果。成蟲的壽命也和幼蟲時期寄主植物的生長型有關，取食藤本植物者比取食草本、灌木或喬木更長壽，至於寄主植物的其他特徵則和昆蟲的成蟲壽命沒有顯著相關。

Abstract
Adult life spans of insects are part of supposedly adaptive life-history syndromes, which involve a variety of reproductive strategies with regard to mating, egg maturation and egg laying. Contingencies of life span with many other morphological, behavioural, and ecological traits are to be expected. We used a data-mining approach, incorporating controls for phylogeny, to uncover broad patterns of trait contingencies in a literature-derived data set of adult life spans for 350 butterfly species. We found that adult feeding habit has strong links with life spans, with pollen-feeders living longer than fruit feeders, which in turn live longer than nectar feeders. Furthermore, traits reducing susceptibility to predators (i.e. aposematism, eye-spots) are associated with longer life. Mud-puddling behaviour as a means of gaining access to minerals, and possibly nitrogen, was generally associated with a short life. We also found strong impacts of the region of occurrence of species (i.e. whether they were tropical or temperate taxa), but received conflicting results depending on whether we analysed field data (longer life in the tropics) or data from caged individuals (shorter life in the tropics). Adult longevity was associated with the growth form of larval host plants (higher on lianas as opposed to herbs, shrubs, or trees), whereas other larval host plant traits did not have strong links with species' life spans. We discuss the hypothetical evolutionary mechanisms explaining those patterns and suggest predictions that could be tested in further research.

Joint meeting on Neotropical Lepidoptera, Lepidopterists’ Society & Association for Tropical Lepidoptera

ELEN III
Joint meeting on Neotropical Lepidoptera, Lepidopterists’ Society & Association for Tropical Lepidoptera
The third meeting on Neotropical Lepidoptera and the 2009 annual meeting of Lepidopterists’ Society in conjunction with Association for Tropical Lepidoptera will be held at the city of Chetumal, Quintana Roo, Mexico. The joint meeting will be sponsored by El Colegio de la Frontera Sur (ECOSUR), Universidad Autonoma de México (UNAM), and Universidad de Colima (UniCol).

ECOSUR is a graduate interdisciplinary research center whose mission is the development and involvement of Mexico in the south border. The programs offered by the center are focused towards the building of scientific knowledge, human resources development, and to design of technologies and strategies that contribute to sustainable development (link to the website).


UNAM: The School of Sciences at UNAM aims to educate scientists, performs and publishes research, and disseminates knowledge through different academic programs to increase the scientific awareness and knowledge within the country. The programs include in Biology, Environmental Sciences, and Sustainable development of coastal areas.


UniCol: Universidad de Colima is a public institution. The School of Biological and Agricultural Sciences at UniCol is an institution where academic excellence, creativity and innovation, and intellectual stimulation are fundamental. These elements are used to promote food production, biology fundamentals, and natural resources conservation to ultimately contribute to the sustainable development of human welfare.

About the place
The city of Chetumal is a midpoint between Mexico and Central America located in the border with Belize. Chetumal offers a blend the best of both Mexico and Central America. Several historical events took place there from the beginning of the Spanish conquest until the total dissolution of the Mayan empire. Mexico starts in the coastal jungle, the land of the jaguar, monkeys, and exotic birds. Chetumal is the capital of the state of Quintana Roo. The word Chetumal comes from the mayan word Chactemal, which means “the place where the red trees grow”. It is located in the Yucatan peninsula off the Chetumal Bay (GPS coordinates are 18°30′13″N 88°18′19″O). The weather is mostly hot and humid and the area is usually affected by hurricanes.


Gastronomy
The state has great influence of Yucatan’s and Belizean cuisine. One of the most outstanding dishes derived from the Belizean food is “rice and beans”, in which the rice is cooked with coconut oil. Tamales, a traditional indigenous American food consisting of steam-cooked corn dough (masa) with or without a filling, are made from xpelón (a local bean variety) and chaya (a large, fast growing leafy perennial shrub), these last one is called “sotobichay”. Puchero (local soup) and Chocolomo (a complex beef dish) are also a local delicacy. In the “All Saints day” “mucbi pollos” (special tamales) and seafood dishes are prepared. These include the cazón bread (tortillas with Shredded Fish and Black Beans), tikinxic (fish marinated with adobo de Achiote and sour oranges then wrapped in a banana leaf and cooked in an earth oven beneath a wood fire), and snail.

SEL Congress 2009

XVIth European Congress of Lepidopterology
Cluj (Romania), 25 – 31 May 2009

2nd circular

The Council of the Societas Europaea Lepidopterologica (SEL) invites all SEL-members and interested lepidopterists to attend the XVIth European Congress of Lepidopterology to be held in Cluj (Romania) from 25 to 31 May 2009.

Please, fill in the registration form enclosed in this issue of News and send it to the contact person:
Raluca Voda
Faculty of Biology and Geology
Department of Taxonomy and Ecology
Str. Clinicilor no 5-7
RO-400084 Cluj-Napoca, Romania
Tel: 0040-740-37.40.39
e-mail: raluvoda@yahoo.com

Deadline for registration: 31 January 2009
Deadline for abstract submission: 1 April 2009
Deadline for manuscript submissions: 31 August 2009

[書介] 婆羅洲蛾類誌 The Moths of Borneo

婆羅洲蛾類誌(The Moths of Borneo)為一套針對婆羅洲及其鄰近地區，撰寫關於中大型蛾類之分類學、系統學與生物地理學介紹的系列書籍。此叢書的發行起緣可溯及1973年由沙巴基金會(Sabah Foundation) 與馬來西亞自然學會(Malayan Nature Society)共同籌策的「Kinabalu山區蛾類專論」，爾後則在大英自然史博物館昆蟲系鱗翅學部門的協助下展開此計劃。整套系列由著名東南亞鱗翅目學家Jeremy Daniel Holloway全數撰寫，從1983年發行的<第四卷 舟蛾科>開始，預計每一至二年出版一卷，共計18卷。直至今日，除了<第二卷 斑蛾科>將於2009與2010年間問世之外，其餘已全數出版。

Holloway在最初發行幾卷的前言中提到了東方區系蛾類在分類歷史上混亂的同物異名情形，也提到他想藉由婆羅洲蛾類誌來建立一套穩定分類處理的想法，而翻讀在書籍尾頁的<關於作者>部分，亦可了解作者過去的採集與計畫足跡涵括大部分的巽他大陸與大洋洲生物地理區，除此之外，藉由作者早期任職於大英博物館與檢閱各歐洲博物館館藏的經歷，即可看出這位重量級的鱗翅目的學者，是如何面對交織於世界第三大島上所發生的自然演化與分類歷史故事。

現今世界上許多被廣為採用的蛾類分類處理其實即源自婆羅洲蛾類誌，在各卷中對於屬級劃分、新種與新亞種發表的數量甚為龐大，然而或許礙於篇幅與期刊出版的限制，一些作者新處理的屬級與種級同物異名僅有列表而未加以說明，還待後續研究者與有興趣者詳加研讀。在高階分類的更動上，值得例舉的有將擬燈蛾亞科(Aganainae)由燈蛾科轉至夜蛾科、將毒蛾科劃分為五個族，其中黃毒蛾族(Nygmiini)、白毒蛾族(Leucomini)、銀毒蛾族(Arctornithini)為新建立者，另外也將尺蛾科中的亞科Desmobathrinae Meyrick重新復活使用等。

龐大的著作其流變也值得一提，除了出版年份不依照卷數順序以外，其出版歷史也使得引用文獻上格外需要注意。剛開始的三篇文章是發表於馬來西亞自然協會期刊，並另由Southdend Sdn. Bhd.*在未作內文修改下發行為單行本，也就是<第四卷>、<第十四卷>以及<第一卷>，發表上似乎按著作者處理類群的優先順序排列。爾後一段時間，由於協會期刊發行的速度趕不上作者撰寫的速度，故在接連的兩篇: <第三卷>、<第六卷>以及後續的<第十三卷>僅由Southdend所發行，其後又由兩者併行出版。若手中有合併發行的Southdend系列書本版，尚可注意到文章首頁左上方標明了期刊發行的卷數與頁數。

另外，婆羅洲蛾類誌亦有網路線上版可供瀏覽，網址為:
The Moths of Borneo
除2008年所發行的<第十八卷 長鬚夜蛾亞科與車厚翅夜蛾亞科>以及尚待出版的<第二卷 斑蛾科>之外，其餘卷數皆如紙本之完整內容。

1995年Holloway獲得由鱗翅學會(The Lepidopterists' Society)所頒發的Karl Jorden** 獎章 (the Karl Jordan Medal)，以表揚他撰寫婆羅洲蛾類誌的貢獻。

繼婆羅洲蛾類誌之後，在Southdend網頁上亦可看到最新的婆羅洲蛾類書籍訊息。Southdend計畫在未來出版窗蛾科(約275種)與螟蛾總科(約3000種)各一冊，由Holloway與Dr T.M. Whitaker, Dr S. Sutton 以及H.S. Barlow共同撰寫，然而規劃上是以名錄與圖鑑的形式出版，而不若婆羅洲蛾類誌包含了分類修訂建議以及物種地理分布等資訊。目前窗蛾科部份已進入後期籌備的階段，而螟蛾總科一冊將分為文字與彩圖版兩部分來呈現。

相關參考:
[書評] 婆羅洲蛾類誌第五卷 毒蛾科/ [Book review] The Moths of Borneo: Part 5; Family Lymantriidae
[書評] 婆羅洲蛾類誌第七卷 苔蛾亞科/ [Book review] The Moths of Borneo: Part 7; Family Arctiidae, subfamily Lithosiinae

* Sdn. Bhd.為馬來語Sendirian Berhad的簡寫，意指私人企業公司
** Karl Jordan為德國昆蟲學家，從1893年開始於英國Walt Rothschild設立的Tring Museum從事昆蟲分類研究，專長領域為鞘翅目、鱗翅目以及蚤目。他一生發表超過400篇文章，2575種新種，此外亦與Rothschild共同發表851種新種。Karl Jordan Medal於1973年開始頒發給對鱗翅目學有卓越貢獻的研究者 (相關參考)。

寄生性蝶種擬態了螞蟻女王的特殊聲音

Queen Ants Make Distinctive Sounds That Are Mimicked by a Butterfly Social Parasite Science 323:782-785 (2009)

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Francesca Barbero,1,2 Jeremy A Thomas,2,3* Simona Bonelli,1 Emilio Balletto,1 Karsten Schönrogge3

1Dipartimento di Biologia Animale e dell´Uomo Laboratorio di Zoologia, Turin, Università degli Studi di Torino, Via Accademia Albertina 13, 10123 Turin, Italy. 2Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, Maclean Building, Benson Lane, Crowmarsh Gifford,Wallingford, Oxfordshire, OX10 8BB, UK. 3Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Tinbergen Building, South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3PS, UK.

*To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail: jeremy.thomas@zoo.ox.ac.uk

螞蟻透過由高度發展的溝通系統所維持的複雜社會組織主導著陸域生態系統，聲學在資訊交換上所扮演的腳色或許被低估了。作者展示了Myrmica schencki 的女王發出會引起工蟻善意回應的特殊聲音,，以鞏固其崇高的社會地位。儘管擁有工蟻兇殘的防衛，螞蟻社會仍會被特定的昆蟲滲入且被剝削資源。寄生性蝶種Maculinea rebeli 的幼蟲與蛹所發出的聲音較像女王而不像工蟻，因此可以提升在螞蟻社會中的地位。作者認為聲音擬態為大約一萬種欺騙螞蟻社會的寄生性物種提供另一條滲透途徑。

ABSTRACT
Ants dominate terrestrial ecosystems through living in complex societies whose organization is maintained via sophisticated communication systems. The role of acoustics in information exchange may be underestimated. We show that Myrmica schencki queens generate distinctive sounds that elicit increased benevolent responses from workers, reinforcing their supreme social status. Although fiercely defended by workers, ant societies are infiltrated by specialist insects that exploit their resources. Sounds produced by pupae and larvae of the parasitic butterfly Maculinea rebeli mimic those of queen ants more closely than those of workers, enabling them to achieve high status within ant societies. We conclude that acoustical mimicry provides another route for infiltration for ~10,000 species of social parasites that cheat ant societies.

相關報導與參考:

sciencenews: Caterpillar noise tricks ants into service (此報導底下附有幼蟲與蛹發出的ㄎㄎ聲音檔案)

NERC - Centre for Ecology & Hydrology: Ant sounds mimicked by invading butterflies

DeVries, P. J. 1991. Detecting and recording the calls produced by butterfly caterpillars and ants. Journal of Research on the Lepidoptera 28: 258-262.
DeVries, P. J. 1991. Call production by myrmecophilous riodinid and lycaenid butterfly caterpillars (Lepidoptera): morphological, acoustical, functional, and evolutionary patterns. American Museum Novitates 3025: 1-23.
DeVries, P. J. 1992. Singing caterpillars, ants and symbiosis. Scientific American 267: 76-82. (此文章由陳燕玲摘錄翻譯於此)

氣候暖化造成熱帶型高山的蛾類群落往較高海拔移動

Elevation increases in moth assemblages over 42 years on a tropical mountain

PNAS (2009) 105: 1479-1483. Full Text: PDF (Size: 870K)

I-Ching Chen^a, Hau-Jie Shiu^b, Suzan Benedick^c, Jeremy D. Holloway^d, Vun Khen Chey^e, Henry S. Barlow^f, Jane K. Hill^a and Chris D. Thomas^a

a Department of Biology, University of York, P.O. Box 373, York YO10 5YW, United Kingdom; b Graduate Institute of Environmental Sciences and Ecology, National University of Tainan, 33 Su-Lin Street, Section 2, Tainan 700, Taiwan; c S chool of Sustainable Agriculture, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Aras 2, Blok B, Bangunan Sekolah Sains and Teknologi, Locked Bag 2073, 88999 Kota Kinabalu, Sabah, Malaysia; d Department of Entomology, The Natural History Museum, Cromwell Road, London SW7 5BD, United Kingdom; e Entomology Section, Forest Research Centre of Sabah, Sepilok, P.O. Box 1407, Postcode 90715, Sandakan, Malaysia; and f P.O. Box 10139, Postcode 50704, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
簡介

以長時間的尺度來討論生物與環境間的議題，在國外有不少的文獻可供參考，這類研究除了對於標的生物(target species)進行族群動態的監測之外，其統計數據亦可用於瞭解其組成結構的環境因子是否有所改變，而大部分研究最關切的議題即是全球暖化。以2007年聯合國跨政府氣後變遷小組 IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change) 所出版的統計數據，顯示從1970年至2004年共有28,586件生物波動觀察與佐證，其中絕多數為溫帶地區所作的研究，此外熱帶地區僅有7件以鳥類、爬蟲類、兩生類等脊椎動物所進行的調查，而其中並沒有在無脊椎或昆蟲相上的數據。

要了解長期的物種或地域性的群聚波動，即需要不同年份與季節的數據資料、不因時空背景而淘汰且重覆性高的研究方法，甚至是經費上的有力支援。在台灣以長期動態為研究目標的計畫早期大多為植被相監測，例如南仁山、福山植物園與楠溪內所設的永久樣區，以最早1989年南仁山所設的三個樣區來說，至今近20年才開始進行第一次複查，而動物相與昆蟲相大致僅有福山植物園內已完成或進行中的大鱗翅群調查計畫，可見台灣的長期生物相調查仍處於初始資料的累積。

2008年由赴英國約克大學(York University)攻讀學位的台灣籍研究生陳一菁、台南大學環境生態研究所許皓捷博士以及他國際研究員等人提出了婆羅洲京那巴魯山區(Mt. Kinabalu)蛾類群落往較高海拔移動的證據。此研究比較了1965年與2007年兩次在此山區採集的鱗翅目樣本，經統計得到102種尺蛾科分類群之海拔梯度分布在42年間上升了67公尺。關於這樣的結果，研究群認為除了可能是氣候變遷所造成的直接影響，也可能導因於尺蛾的寄主植物受環境因子波動的間接結果。

副熱帶地區的昆蟲相是否受到全球氣候變遷而有所影像? 副熱帶高山帶是否可作為氣候暖化時，溫帶型物種或是地域性特有種的庇護所? 這兩個議題在介於熱帶與副熱帶的台灣都可以籌議長期的生物相調查。

相關報導與參考:

NHM- Climate change pushes moths up mountain

Sceience News- Global impact of climate change on biodiversity

Moths of Borneo

Images of Mt. Kinabalu and its flora (Bettaman)

ABSTRACT

Physiological research suggests that tropical insects are particularly sensitive to temperature, but information on their responses toclimate change has been lacking—even though the majority of all terrestrial species are insects and their diversity is concentrated in the tropics. Here, we provide evidence that tropical insect specieshave already undertaken altitude increases, confirming the global reach of climate change impacts on biodiversity. In 2007, we repeated a historical altitudinal transect, originally carried out in 1965 on Mount Kinabalu in Borneo, sampling 6 moth assemblagesbetween 1,885 and 3,675 m elevation. We estimate that the average altitudes of individuals of 102 montane moth species, inthe family Geometridae, increased by a mean of 67 m over the 42 years. Our findings indicate that tropical species are likely to be as sensitive as temperate species to climate warming, and we urge ecologists to seek other historic tropical samples to carry out similar repeat surveys. These observed changes, in combination with the high diversity and thermal sensitivity of insects, suggest that large numbers of tropical insect species could be affected by climate warming. As the highest mountain in one of the most biodiverse regions of the world, Mount Kinabalu is a globally important refuge for terrestrial species that become restricted to high altitudes by climate warming.

雄性求偶聲在一種螟蛾族群中反應基準之變異：關於求偶場所的解釋

本圖片由basalstreaker上載至flickr

Reaction Norm Variants for Male Calling Song in Populations of Achroia grisella (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae): Toward a Resolution of the Lek Paradox

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Yihong Zhou ^1,2 , Heidi K. Kuster ¹ , Jeffrey S. Pettis ³ , Robert G. Danka ⁴ , Jennifer M. Gleason ¹ , and Michael D. Greenfield ^1,5,6

¹ Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Univ. of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas 66045 ² E-mail: zhouyh@ku.edu ³ USDA ARS Bee Research Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland 20705 ⁴ USDA ARS Honey Bee Breeding Genetics and Physiology Research Laboratory, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70820 ⁵ Institut de recherche sur la biologie de l'insecte, CNRS UMR 6035, Université François Rabelais de Tours, 37200 Tours, France ⁶ E-mail: michael.greenfield@univ-tours.fr Associate Editor: J. Mappes

ABSTRACT

Significant additive genetic variance often occurs for male advertisement traits in spite of the directional selection imposed by female choice, a problem generally known in evolutionary biology as the lek paradox. One hypothesis, which has limited support from recent studies, for the resolution of this paradox is the role of genotype × environment interaction in which no one genotype exhibits the superior performance in all environments—a crossover of reaction norms. However, these studies have not characterized the actual variation of reaction norms present in natural populations, and the extent to which crossover maintains genetic variance remains unknown. Here, we present a study of genotype × environment interaction for the male calling song in populations of Achroia grisella (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae; lesser waxmoth). We report significant variance among reaction norms for male calling song in two North American populations of A. grisella as measured along temperature, food availability, and density gradients, and there is a relatively high incidence of crossover of the temperature reaction norms. This range of reaction norm variants and their crossover may reflect the co-occurrence of plastic and canalized genotypes, and we argue that the different responses of these variants along environmental gradients may contribute toward the maintenance of genetic variance for male song.

Esperiana - Buchreihe zur Entomologie第14卷出版

Esperiana為德國業餘鱗翅學者HH Hacker為了紀念18世紀德國博物學家EJC Esper所創立之分類學期刊. 本卷的主要文章為Hacker HH, Legrain A & Fibiger M所著的Revision of the genus Acontia Ochsenheimer, 1816 and the tribus Acontiini GUENÉE, 1841 (Old World) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae: Acontiinae). 本卷之內容與介紹請見此處.

非洲皇蛾的幼生期形態：有助重建天蠶蛾亞科親緣關係之特徵

Morphology of the preimaginal stages of the African emperor moth Bunaeopsis licharbas (Maassen and Weyding): phylogenetically informative characters within the Saturniinae (Lepidoptera: Saturniidae)

Journal of Morphology 269(2):207 - 232 | References | Full Text: PDF (Size: 1570K)

Rougerie R, Estradel Y. (2008)

Département Systématique et Evolution, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, USM 602, CP 50, F-75231 Paris, France. rrougeri@uoguelph.ca

Abstract
The current classification of African representatives of the family Saturniidae is largely unsatisfactory and needs to be revised following a proper and rigorous phylogenetic analysis. In this regard, the use of characters of preimaginal stages in phylogeny reconstruction was already emphasized in the literature; however, few details are known about the morphology of the eggs, larvae, and pupae of these moths. To fill this gap and to provide a preliminary basis for further phylogenetic studies, the early stages of Bunaeopsis licharbas, a member of the tribe Bunaeini within the Saturniinae, are described. Egg chorionic ultrastructure, chaetotaxy of the larva in every instar, and morphology of the pupa are described and illustrated. A total of 22 previously overlooked characters was found and their potential phylogenetic significance is discussed in the light of a comparative study which includes a large set of representatives of all five tribes in the subfamily. Until further phylogenetic analyses, some characters are considered to be potential synapomorphies supporting, in particular, the monophyly of the tribe Bunaeini, the close relationship between this tribe and part of the Urotini, as well as the existence of an Afrotropical lineage within the Saturniinae uniting the tribes Bunaeini, Urotini, and Micragonini. In a group of moths whose preimaginal instars are among the best known within the Lepidoptera, the unexpected, and relatively high number of potentially informative characters found by the present study stresses the value of minute and exhaustive descriptive studies to make use of morphological characters available for phylogenetic studies.

圖片來源: lepbarcoding

選擇性的消滅或保留外來植物以拯救稀有蝶種免於局部滅絕

本圖片由blinque_blinque上載至flickr

Selectively eliminating and conserving exotic plants to save an endangered butterfly from local extinction

free | Full article (PDF; 237KB)

P. M. Severns, A. D. W. (2008). Animal Conservation 11(6): 476-483.

保育稀有蝴蝶首先必須了解影響其族群成長的資源情況。外來植物可能降低蝴蝶的族群大小，但也有可能轉而成為蝴蝶的食草來源之一。北美洲西北太平洋區的一種蛺蝶Euphydryas editha taylori由未知的原生食草植物轉移至取食西奧勒岡地區的外來植物Plantago lanceolata，但該地也同時存有另外兩種相當優勢的外來植物、會大面積的覆蓋土地且包圍該蝶種族群，研究顯示該蝶種母蝶的產卵偏好除了寄主植物的選擇外也會受到週遭環境因子影響，故推測1970年代晚期當地該蝶種的大滅絕導因於另外兩種外來植物的引入，並建議保育該蝶種的策略可採行保留現在已知的外來種食草Plantago lanceolata。

Abstract
Rare butterfly conservation requires understanding of butterfly interactions with the resource conditions that influence population growth. Exotic plant invasions can reduce butterfly population size and growth by displacing key resources, degrading habitat conditions and directly impacting fitness, but exotic plants may also be incorporated into native butterfly diets, rendering practicing conservation biologists a choice between exotic plant control and butterfly population persistence. Euphydryas editha taylori (Nymphalidae), a candidate endangered butterfly species in the Pacific Northwest of North America, switched from an unknown native larval host plant to become entirely dependent on an exotic larval host Plantago lanceolata in extant western Oregon populations. Furthermore, the last Oregon butterfly populations are surrounded by two exotic grasses, Brachypodium sylvaticum and Festuca arundinacea, both of which can dominate remnant native prairies and degrade native grassland structural conditions. When given a choice of habitat conditions, E. e. taylori oviposited on larval host plants surrounded by increasing abundance of short-statured native bunchgrasses and adult nectar resources, indicating that females select egg-laying sites based on habitat conditions rather than just host plant presence. Both larval and adult resources substantially diminished with increasing cover of exotic grasses and were nearly absent when B. sylvaticum and F. arundinacea dominated. Butterfly resource loss with increasing exotic grass cover, the documentation of contemporary subpopulation extinction, current historic site conditions and grass invasion history in the Willamette Valley suggest that mass E. e. taylori extinction in western Oregon by the late 1970s was due to B. sylvaticum and F. arundinacea invasion. To prevent the extinction of E. e. taylori, land managers must accept that the anthropogenically mediated host switch to P. lanceolata must be conserved and that reintroductions/ augmentation with a potential native host plant species is unlikely to be effective because larval development is timed to P. lanceolata growth.